Table 2 The 89 studies that explored effects of obesity on task or body part specific functioning, are categorized into 7 groups based on their main focus and ordered chronologically within groups
| Â | Author, Year, Origin | Study Focus | Subjects | Sample size (%OW/OB) | Outcome Variable(s)/Method | Primary Obesity Measure / Other Measure(s) | OB BMI: mean(SD)/ range | Significant Obesity Effect | Significant Overweight Effect | Acknowledging Limitations of Obesity Measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gait Characteristics | DeVita et al., 2003, USA [85] | Lower extremity joint kinetics & energetics | General population | 39 (54%) | Motion analysis, force platform | BMI | 42.3(2.9) | + | NA | – |
Browning et al., 2006, USA [86] | Metabolic rates & energy cost | General population | 39 (49%) | Oxygen consumption, preferred walking speed | BMI / WHR, %BF: DEXA | M:33(2).1 F:33.8(3.3) | + | NA | – | |
Browning & Kram., 2007, USA [87] | Walking biomechanics(knee-joint loads) | Young adults | 20 (50%) | Ground reaction force, gait kinematics | BMI / *segment mass | M:34.1(3.7), F: 37(6) | + | NA | – | |
Lafortuna et al., 2008, Italy [88] | Energetics and cardiovascular responses of walking & cycling | Lean: hospital staff, OB: hospital admits (body mass reduction) | 21 (71%) | HR, Vo2 max, metabolic rate | BMI / %BF: BIA | 41.1(5) | + | NA | – | |
Lai et al., 2008, China [89] | Three-dimensional gait characteristics | General population | 28 (50%) | Motion analysis | BMI | 33.06(4.2) | + | NA | – | |
Browning et al., 2009, USA [90] | External mechanical work | Young adults | 20 (50%) | Ground reaction force | BMI | M:34.1(3.7), F:37(6) | – | NA | + | |
Malatesta et al., 2009, Switzerland [91] | Mechanical external work | General population | 49 (61%) | Center of mass displacement, mechanical external work, kinetic energy transduction | BMI | 39.6(0.6) | – | NA | – | |
Ko et al., 2010, USA [92] | Characteristics of gait | Older adults enrolled in aging research | 164 (66%) | Motion analysis, force platform | BMI |  | + | +/− | – | |
Russell et al., 2010, USA [93] | Energy expenditure & biomechanical risk factors for knee OA | Young adults | 20 (50%) | O2 uptake, peak impact shock, peak external knee adduction moment knee adduction angular impulse | BMI | 33.09(4.22) | – | NA | – | |
Blaszczyk et al., 2011, Poland [94] | Basic spatiotemporal gait measures | General population + outpatient obesity treatment clinic | 136 (74%) | Stance & swing time, stride length | BMI | 37.2(5.2) | + | NA | + | |
Ehlen et al., 2011, US [95] | Energetics and biomechanics of gait | General population | 12 (100%) | Oxygen consumption, ground reaction forces, & three-dimensional lower-extremity kinematics | BMI / %BF: DEXA | 33.4(2.4) | NA | NA | – | |
Cimolin et al., 2011, Italy [96] | Gait pattern | Obese: admits to obesity multidisciplinary rehabilitation program | 28 (64%) | Gait Spatio-temporal parameters & kinematics | BMI / WC | OB + LBP: 42.4(5.5), OB - LBP: 39.3 | + | NA | – | |
Russell & Hamill., 2011, US [97] | Obesity × laterally wedged insole effect on gait kinetic and kinematic | Young females | 28 (50%) | Peak joint angles, external knee adduction moment & angular impulse | BMI / %BF: DEXA | 37.2(6.1) | + | NA | – | |
Wu et al., 2012, USA [98] | Gait adaptations & implication on risk of slip initiations | Young male students | 10 (50%) | Motion analysis, force plate | %BF from BIA / BMI | 33.7(2.8) | +/− | NA | – | |
Harding et al., 2012, Canada [99] | Knee OA × obesity effect on knee joint mechanics | General population + orthopedic clinic admits | 244 (72%) | Knee joint angles, joint moment | BMI / *thigh and calf circumference | 34.9(4) | + | + | + | |
Russell et al., 2013, USA [100] | Laterally wedged insoles × obesity effect on knee joint contact force | General population | 28 (50%) | Center of pressure on the tibial plateau | BMI / %BF: DEXA | 37.2(6.1) | NA | NA | – | |
Browning et al., 2013, USA [101] | Metabolic rate, stride kinematics & external mechanical work | young females | 37 (49%) | Oxygen uptake, ground reaction force, lower extremity kinematics | BMI / %BF: DEXA, *Trunk-to-leg fat mass ratio | 33.9(3.6) | – | NA | – | |
Ranavolo et al., 2013, Italy [102] | Walking coordination during walking | General population | 50 (50%) | Motion analysis | BMI / WC, %BF: Siri equation | Range(33.8–44) | + | NA | – | |
Vismara et al., 2014, Italy [103] | Changes in gait | General population | 32 (44%) | Motion analysis | BMI | 40.2(3.3) | + | NA | – | |
Haight et al., 2014, USA [104] | Compressive tibio-femoral forces | General population | 19 (47%) | Motion analysis (lower extremity biomechanics), EMG | BMI / %BF: DEXA | 35(3.8) | +/− | NA | – | |
Glave et al., 2014, USA [105] | Gait alterations | General population | 22 (50%) | Gait variables | BMI / %BF: DEXA | 31.42(7.3) | + | NA | + | |
Cau et al., 2014, Italy [106] | Gait strategy | Hospital patients for weight reduction programs & staff | 35 (57%) | Center of pressure parameters | BMI | 43(4.9) | + | NA | – | |
Lerner et al., 2014, USA [107] | Joint kinematics & individual muscle forces during gait | General population | 19 (47%) | Motion analysis, EMG data, ground reaction force | BMI / lean mass (kg): DEXA | 35(3.78) | + | NA | – | |
Disease Prevalence/Incidenc | Kouyoumdjian et al., 2000, Brazil [108] | Severity of Carpal tunnel syndrome | Carpel tunnel syndrome patients | 384 (13%) | Case - control study | BMI |  | + | NA | – |
Young et al., 2001, USA [109] | Asthma risk | Military population and their families (17-69 yrs) | 38,924 (53%) | Case - control study | BMI |  | + | + | – | |
J. D. Bland., 2005, UK [110] | Age × body mass index effect on carpel tunnel syndrome risk | Hospital admits | 4166 (14%) | Self-report CTS diagnosis | BMI |  | + | + | – | |
Liuke et al., 2005, Finland [111] | Prevalence and progression of lumbar disc degeneration | Employed middle-aged men | 129 (50%) | Prospective cohort: MRI imaging | BMI |  | NA | + | – | |
Dagan et al., 2006, Israel [112] | BMI as a screening method for detection of excessive daytime sleepiness | Professional drivers | 153 (100%) | Sleep characteristics | BMI | 36.78(7.32) | + | NA | – | |
Zhao et al., 2007, USA [113] | Osteoporosis | Chinese general population + US Caucasian general population | 6477 (0%) | Bone mass at the lumbar spine, total body bone mineral content | BMI / %BF: DEXA |  | + | + | + | |
Sharifi-Mollayousefi et al., 2008, Iran [114] | BMI as independent risk determinants in the development and severity of Carpal tunnel syndrome | Patients with carpal tunnel syndrome (cases) and their relatives (controls) | 262 (50%) | Case-control study | BMI |  | + | NA | – | |
Grotle et al., 2008, Norway [115] | OA incident in hip, knee, and hand | General population | 1675 (35%) | Prospective cohort: OA diagnosis | BMI |  | + | +/− | – | |
Noorloos et al., 2008, Netherlands [116] | Obesity × whole body vibration effect on risk of LBP | Occupational vehicle drivers | 214 (69%) | Low back pain | BMI |  | – | – | – | |
Toivanen et al., 2010, Finland [117] | Knee OA risk | Finnish adults aged 530 years | 823 (39%) | Prospective cohort: OA diagnosis | BMI |  | + | + | – | |
Vismara et al., 2010, Italy [118] | LBP incidence | General population | 37 (70%) | Trunk angle during standing, forward flexion & lateral bending | BMI | LBP:41.9(5.3),Non:39.2(3.6) | + | NA | – | |
Wood et al., 2011, USA [119] | Pain experienced by persons with chronic back pain | Patients with lower back pain of over 3 months | 198 (62%) | Blood pressure, pain level | BMI |  | – | – | – | |
Ackerman & Osborne., 2012, Australia [120] | Burden of hip & knee joint disease | General population | 1157 (55%) | OA diagnosis | BMI |  | + | + | – | |
Jensen et al., 2012, Denmark [121] | LBP risk factor | Newly educated health care helpers | 1355 (41%) | Prospective cohort: Self-reported levels of LBP | BMI | 34.8(6.08) | – | – | – | |
Silvernail et al., 2013, USA [122] | Biomechanical risk factor for knee OA | Yong university and community members | 30 (67%) | Gait kinetic & kinematics | BMI / %BF: BIA | 34.4(3.9) | – | – | – | |
Seror & Seror., 2013, France [123] | Incidence of idiopathic median nerve lesion at the wrist | Patients with carpal tunnel syndrome | 676 (25%) | Electrophysiological evaluation outcomes | BMI |  | + | + | – | |
Martin et al., 2013, USA [124] | Knee OA risk factor | British birth cohort participants | 2957 (0%) | Knee Osteoarthritis | BMI (z-score) |  | + | NA | – | |
Romero-Vargas et al., 2013, Mexico [125] | Modifications on spino-pelvic parameters & type of lumbar lordosis | General population | 200 (80%) | Spino-pelvic values | BMI / WC |  | – | – | + | |
Messier et al., 2014, USA [126] | Frontal plane knee alignment × obesity effect on knee joint loads in knee OA | Community dwelling older adults (age > 55 yrs) | 157 (100%) | knee osteoarthritis: X-ray at baseline | BMI | 33.4(3.7) | + | + | – | |
Urquhart et al., 2014, Australia [127] | Occupational activities × obesity effect on LBP | General population + weight loss clinic attendees | 145 (61%) | Low back pain intensity & disability | BMI |  | + | NA | – | |
Evanoff et al., 2014, France [128] | Physical occupational exposures × obesity effect on post-retirement shoulder/knee pain | French national power utility employees | 9415 (52%) | Retrospective cohort: self-administered questionnaires | BMI |  | + | – | – | |
Functional Capacity | Hulens et al., 2001, Belgium [129] | Submaximal & maximal exercise capacity | General population | 306 (74%) | Oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide production, respiratory quotient, breathing efficiency, mechanical efficiency & anaerobic threshold | BMI / %BF: BIA | 38.1(5.6) | + | NA | – |
Hulens et al., 2002, Belgium [130] | Peripheral muscle strength | Outpatient Endocrinology Clinic patients | 241 (100%) | Trunk strength, peak oxygen consumption | BMI / Fat free and fat mass: BIA | 37.5(5.4) | NA | NA | – | |
Maffiuletti et al., 2007,Switzerland [131] | Voluntary & stimulated fatigue of the quadriceps femoris muscle | Lean: hospital staff, obese: hospital admits for body mass reduction | 20 (50%) | Maximal voluntary isometric & isokinetic torque, torque loss | BMI / Fat free mass: BIA | 41.3(5.4) | + | NA | – | |
Segal et al., 2009, USA [132] | Forces on the medial compartment of the knee joint | General population | 59 (68%) | knee joint forces | BMI / WHR | Central: 35(4), lower body: 36.4 (5.4) | +/− | NA | + | |
Capodaglio et al., 2009, Italy [133] | Lower limb muscle function | General population | 40 (50%) | Isokinetic strength during knee flexion & extension | BMI | 38.1(3.1) | + | NA | + | |
Singh et al., 2009, USA [134] | Maximum acceptable weights of lift | General population | 60 (67%) | MAWL | BMI / WC,WHR,%BF estimated: ST | II: 37.13(1.58) III:47.84(9.85) | – | NA | – | |
Faria et al., 2009, Portugal [135] | Muscle–tendon unit stiffness | General population | 105 (77%) | Ankle muscle–tendon unit stiffness at 30% MVC | BMI | 32.1(1.3) | + | + | – | |
Park et al., 2010, USA [136] | Joint RoM | Young and university affiliated | 40 (50%) | RoM | BMI | 44(7.4) | +/− | NA | – | |
Blazek et al., 2013, USA [137] | Age × obesity effect on Knee adduction and flexion moments | General population | 96 (38%) | Ground reaction force magnitude, knee alignment, step width, toe-out angle, limb position | BMI | 35.3(3.9) | + | NA | – | |
Cavuoto & Nussbaum., 2013, USA [138] | Age × obesity effect on shoulder capacity | Young: students, old: retired or employed in non-physically demanding jobs | 32 (50%) | Endurance, discomfort, motor control, task performance | BMI / WC, WHR | Young: 34.1(2.8), Old: 36.4(3.3) | + | NA | + | |
Hamilton et al., 2013, USA [139] | BMI × workstation configuration effect on joint angles | General population | 30 (80%) | Joint angle, forward functional reach | BMI | I: 32(1.26) II:37(1.73) III:44(4.97) | – | – | – | |
Mignardot et al., 2013, France [140] | Motor control behavior | General population | 20 (60%) | Kinematic variables, Center of mass displacement characteristics | BMI | 36.6(3.3) | + | NA | – | |
Wearing et al., 2013, Australia [141] | Resistance exercise × obesity effect on immediate transverse strain of the Achilles tendon | University faculty | 20 (50%) | Sonographic examinations | BMI | 30(3.1) | + | + | + | |
Cavuoto & Nussbaum., 2013, USA [142] | Strength and functional performance | Local community | 36 (50%) | Endurance time, strength | BMI / WC,WHR | 33.6(3.1) | +/− | NA | + | |
Cavuoto & Nussbaum., 2014, USA [143] | Age × obesity effect on functional performance | General population | 32 (50%) | endurance, discomfort, motor control, task performance | BMI / WC,WHR | Young: 34.3(4), Old: 35.9(3.6) | + | NA | + | |
Mehta & Cavuoto., 2015, USA [144] | Obesity × age effects on handgrip endurance | General population | 45 (44%) | hand grip endurance | BMI | Young: 33.1(3.6),Old:36.1(8.1) | +/− | NA | – | |
Balance & Plantar Pressure | Hills et al., 2001, Australia [145] | Plantar pressure | General population | 70 (50%) | Pressure distribution | BMI | 38.75(5.97) | + | NA | + |
Gravante et al., 2003, Italy [146] | Centre of pressure location & plantar pressures | General population | 72 (53%) | Centre of pressure location, plantar ground contact surface areas & pressures | BMI / WHR | M:36(7.4), F:38(6.8) | +/− | NA | – | |
Birtane & Tuna., 2004, Turkey [147] | Plantar pressure distribution | General population | 50 (50%) | Pedobarographic evaluations | BMI | 32.2(2) | + | NA | – | |
Berrigan et al., 2006, Canada [148] | Balance control constraint during accurate and rapid arm movement | General population | 17 (53%) | Body kinematics, center of pressure, displacement, reaction time, movement time | BMI | 37(6.6) | + | NA | – | |
Teh et al., 2006, Singapore [149] | Pressure distribution under the feet | General population | 120 (42%) | Plantar pressure distribution | BMI | I: 34.3 II: 38.9(3.6) | +/− | NA | – | |
Singh et al., 2009, USA [150] | obesity × task duration effect on postural sway and functional reach | Students & sedentary office workers | 20 (50%) | Posture sway, functional reach | BMI / WHR | 45.96(7.85) | + | NA | – | |
Blaszczyk et al., 2009, Poland [151] | Postural control | Obesity treatment clinic patients | 133 (75%) | CP measures: voluntary displacement, path, range | BMI / %BF: BIA, WC,HC | 37.2(5.2) | – | NA | – | |
Park et al., 2009, USA [152] | Postural stress during static posture maintenance | General population | 40 (50%) | Rated perceived exertion | BMI / WHR,%BF estimated: ST | 46.26(4.99) | + | NA | – | |
Menegoni et al., 2009, Italy [153] | Static posture variability | Orthopedic Rehabilitation Unit patients and staff (control) | 54 (81% | Center of pressure velocity & displacements along the antero-posterior & medio-lateral axis | BMI | M:40.2(5), F: 41.1(4.1) | + | NA | + | |
Monteiro et al., 2010, Portugal [154] | Plantar pressure | Postmenopausal women | 239 (79%) | Foot-scan pressure plate | %BF from BIA / BMI | 29.6(3.2), 36.4(3.8) | +/− | NA | – | |
Miller et al., 2011, USA [155] | Balance recovery from small forward postural perturbations | Young adults (22 years old) | 20 (50%) | Peak COM displacement, peak COM velocity, peak ankle torque | BMI | 33.2(2.3) | – | NA | – | |
Matrangola & Madigan., 2011, USA [156] | Balance recovery using an ankle strategy | Young males | 20 (50% | Body angle, ground reaction force | BMI | 32.2(2.2) | +/− | NA | – | |
Peduzzi de Castro et al., 2014, Portugal [157] | Pressure relief insoles | General population | 31 (32%) | Ground reaction force, plantar pressure | BMI | 36.5(4.51) | + | NA | – | |
Task Functionality | Galli et al., 2000, Italy [158] | Motion strategies: sit-to-stand | General population + obese subjects suffering from chronic lower back pain | 40 (75%) | Movement kinetics & kinematics | BMI | 40(5.9) | + | NA | – |
Sibella et al., 2003, Italy [159] | Biomechanical model: sit-to-stand | Hospital recovers | 50 (80%) | Trunk flexion, feet movement, knee & hip joint torques | BMI | 37.9(4.9) | + | NA | – | |
Lafortuna et al., 2006, Italy [160] | Energy cost of submaximal cycling | Lean: hospital staff, obese: hospital admits for body mass reduction | 18 (50%) | Oxygen uptake, Vo2 max, anaerobic threshold, mechanical efficiency | BMI / %BF: BIA | 40(1.2) | + | NA | – | |
Gilleard & Smith., 2007, Australia [161] | Postural adaptations: trunk forward flexion motion in sitting and standing | General Population | 20 (50%) | Trunk flexion motion during forward flexion, trunk posture, hip joint moment | WC / BMI | 38.9(6.6) | +/− | NA | – | |
Xu et al., 2008, USA [162] | Lifting kinematics & kinetics | College students | 12 (50%) | Motion analysis | BMI | 33.28 (30.4–38.8) | – | NA | + | |
Taboga et al., 2012, Italy [163] | Mechanical work, energy cost of transport, and efficiency: running | Hospital admits-adults from metabolic disorders | 25 (40%) | Oxygen uptake, kinematics, center of mass location | BMI / %BF: BIA | 41.5(5.3) | + | NA | – | |
Hendrick et al., 2012, USA [164] | Neural processes of cognitive control: stop signal test | General population | 43 (30%) | Functional magnetic resonance imaging | BMI | 33.2(2.6) | + | NA | + | |
Singh et al., 2013, USA [165] | Contact forces & moments exerted by the abdomen on the thigh: seated reaching | Older adults | 10 (100%) | Motion analysis, force plate | BMI / WC | 39.04(5.02) | +/− | NA | + | |
Schmid et al., 2013, Switzerland [166] | Kinetic & kinematic variables: sit-to-stand test. | Going to attend a weight loss program at hospital | 36 (72%) | Vertical ground reaction forces, rising velocity (motion analysis) | BMI | I: 32.68(1.53), II: 39.42(2.71) | – | +/− | – | |
Pysiological Responses | Willenberg et al., 2010, Switzerland [167] | Venous flow parameters of the lower limbs | Students and medical staff | 45 (49%) | Venous hemodynamics: Diameter, flow volume, peak, mean, & minimum velocities | BMI / WHR, WC | 36.2(5.9) | + | NA | + |
Engelberger et al., 2014, Switzerland [168] | Diurnal leg volume increase | Obese subjects: weight management clinic patients, general population | 39 (62%) | Common femoral vein diameter, peak flow velocity, mean velocity & minimal velocity | BMI / WHR | 40.2(5.9) | + | NA | – | |
Yang et al., 2015, China [169] | Acute high-altitude exposure | Chinese railroad construction workers | 262 (46%) | Acute mountain sickness | BMI | 29.9(3.8) | – | NA | – | |
Miscellaneous | Menegoni et al., 2007, Italy [170] | Clinical protocol to characterize the trunk movements | Lean: hospital staff, obese: hospital admits for diet therapy and exercise classes | 20 (50%) |  | BMI | 38.7(3.5) | NA | NA | – |
Forman et al., 2009, USA [171] | Restraint of automobile occupants | Post mortem human surrogates | 5 (40%) | Chest deformation, acceleration, tension in the restraint system, etc. | BMI | 40 | + | NA | – | |
Lerner et al., 2014, USA [172] | Obesity-specific kinematic marker set to account for subcutaneous adiposity | General population | 18 (50%) | Ground reaction force, walking kinematics, EMG | BMI | 35(3.78) | NA | NA | – | |
Thorp et al., 2014, Australia [173] | Standing workstations effect on fatigue, musculoskeletal discomfort & work productivity | Middle-aged sedentary employees | 23 (100%) | Self-reported fatigue, musculoskeletal discomfort, work productivity | BMI | 33.7(4.3) | + | + | – |